Ok this is helpful. But I still don't really see how to write that out. I know more or less what the goal of my story is. But I have no idea how I'm going to take that and say "Ok X is going to happen in this chapter."
Well, hopefully you know what story you are telling.
That's the big picture, but if you want to devolve the story into more manageable bits, then an outline will help.
The outline can be structured or even unstructured, such as simply a cork board to pin up your thoughts and ideas. However, somewhere along the process you start to tick and tie those ideas together. You end up with a time line of events that lead you from page one right up to the final sentence.
Let's begin with your story. You should have an idea of where it ends. Your story is going to be some dramatic climax. At its root is a problem of some sort and characters that are going to solve the problem. Once you define the problem you are now left with how you will solve it.
The steps you take to solve the problem might be a good first stab at individual chapters.
Since I don't know your story I will give you a few examples from mine in a abstract way.
The first chapter describes a discovery. The true implication of the discovery is not understood by the reader, but it is presented as an individual making a discovery.
The next chapter is a leap forward in time, so we have a completely new set of characters and as such it is a logical breaking point in the story. The discovery is lost in the attic, but a new character finds it and its rediscovery creates a new problem for that character to solve - how to exploit this discovery. Once that problem is fully described I break again.
Now the next chapter takes you to a completely different planet where some action takes place. The action is directly related to the story and I am describing the scene of what takes place. It is a meeting between members of a gang and a decision has been made on a course of action that the gang will take. Assignments a given to key characters and the scene ends with the meeting breaking up and members setting out to do their tasks.
Now we bounce back to the character who found the discovery in the attic. His resolution on how to exploit the discovery is revealed in the beginning of this chapter and in the chapter we see him follow through with his plan. It ends on a climax of its own with a new character getting into trouble. Ah, what will happen next? You must read on!
Now, another neat thing chapters can do for you is to explore different points of view (POVs). One chapter can describe events from one character and a second can describe the same set of events from a different person's viewpoint, or perhaps a different set of events. Each one deserves its own chapter. Okay, I digress, but I wanted to give you another purpose for creating a new chapter.
So, what is happening from chapter to chapter? Well, each scene/chapter should be culminating a greater and greater sense of suspense. Think of it as a series of different problems for your characters to solve, each one getting more and more intense as they work their way toward the book's climax. You have to be a bit of a sadist and keep imposing greater and greater challenges and obstacles in the path of your characters.
I like the term of a ticking time bomb. It's going to go off unless someone stops it. Each chapter is a step forward toward stopping it or even a setback, but ultimately, step by step we are working toward the final countdown. Your chapters represent the logical steps toward that climax. Like a play's scene, you will create scenes where you either make progress toward the end game, lose ground, or introduce a new stumbling block that throws a twist into the story.
Since writing is a subjective art (hey, what art is not subjective?), there are no hard and fast rules to define the contents of a chapter. You have to decide what works and what doesn't. The best way to do that is to write stories. Short ones are the easiest and probably the best way to learn. From there you can increase the length and gain experience and confidence on how to arrange your work.
Also, reading other people's literature is a great idea. However, you need to read it from an analytical point of view. If it is a paper book you need to have highlighter and postits in hand. Book mark important details with shreds of postit notes and highlight the passages. It is also good to write note in the book.
Doing that will help reinforce what you read, committing those observations to memory. After a time your work will begin to jell and you will have revelations that jump up at you.
Finally, you can always enroll in writing and literature courses at a local college.
